Who Killed the Electric Car?

Who Killed the Electric Car? is an American documentary film written and directed by Chris Paine. Released in 2006, it examines why battery-electric vehicles that briefly reached consumers in the United States during the 1990s were not developed into a sustained mass-market product category. The film uses General Motors' EV1 as its central case study, while also discussing electric vehicles associated with Toyota, Honda, Ford, Chrysler and Nissan. The documentary places the EV1 story within the regulatory history of California's zero-emission vehicle program. In 1990, the California Air Resources Board adopted a mandate requiring major automobile manufacturers to offer zero-emission vehicles as a condition of continuing to sell gasoline-powered vehicles in the state. In response, manufacturers developed and produced several thousand electric vehicles, many of which were leased rather than sold. The film argues that this created a rare opportunity for consumers to experience modern electric transportation, but that the opportunity was later curtailed when regulatory requirements were weakened and the manufacturers ended their programs. The film focuses particularly on General Motors' decision to discontinue the EV1 and recover most of the leased vehicles. It documents protests by drivers and activists, the crushing of many returned vehicles, and the preservation of a small number by museums and educational institutions. The documentary presents competing explanations for the program's failure. Automakers and their representatives emphasize limited range, price and weak consumer demand. The film's critics and interviewees instead point to restricted availability, limited marketing, manufacturer reluctance, pressure from the petroleum industry, regulatory reversals and the possibility that electric cars threatened established revenue models because they required less routine maintenance. Its investigation is organized around several possible contributors: consumers, batteries, automobile companies, oil companies, state and federal policymakers, the California Air Resources Board and the promotion of hydrogen fuel-cell vehicles. The film treats batteries as less culpable than commonly assumed, noting that later EV1 models and other vehicles used improved battery technologies and that many daily journeys fell within the practical range of the cars then available. It is sharply skeptical of hydrogen vehicles as an immediate alternative, presenting them as a technologically distant solution that could divert attention from battery-electric and plug-in hybrid vehicles. The documentary also connects the EV1 controversy with broader questions about air pollution, petroleum dependence, energy security, climate change and the political influence of established industries. Interviews include EV drivers, engineers, public officials, policy specialists, industry representatives and prominent advocates. The film premiered at the 2006 Sundance Film Festival and received a worldwide theatrical release through Sony Pictures Classics beginning on June 28, 2006. Its subject became part of the public debate that later accompanied the renewed growth of electric vehicles. A related follow-up documentary, Revenge of the Electric Car, was released in 2011.

Who Killed the Electric Car? was created as an investigation into the disappearance of a promising generation of battery-electric vehicles from the American market. Chris Paine wrote and directed the film, which was produced by Jessie Deeter with executive production involving Tavin Marin Titus, Richard D. Titus, Dean Devlin, Kearie Peak, Mark Roskin and Rachel Olshan. Michael Brook composed the score, with additional music attributed to Joe Walsh, DJ Harry and Meeky Rosie. The documentary's historical foundation is California's zero-emission vehicle policy. In 1990, the California Air Resources Board adopted rules intended to require major automobile suppliers to introduce zero-emission vehicles. The policy was designed to address air pollution and encourage technological development while allowing manufacturers to continue selling conventional gasoline vehicles in California. During the 1990s, General Motors, Toyota, Honda, Ford, Chrysler and Nissan developed electric vehicles for the American market. The EV1 became the film's main subject because it was a purpose-built electric car that General Motors offered primarily through leases, especially in Southern California. The film follows the EV1 from development and public promotion to withdrawal. Early promotional activity included highly visible advertising, but the program later became difficult for consumers to obtain and was not converted into a normal retail product. When the program ended, General Motors reclaimed most leased vehicles and destroyed many of them. A limited number were disabled and transferred to museums or educational institutions. Activists and former drivers protested the removals, including a blockade attempt during which several participants were arrested. The documentary presents the episode as evidence that market demand cannot be assessed independently from product availability, advertising, distribution and corporate decisions. A major part of the film concerns the weakening of California's zero-emission requirements in the early 2000s. It portrays automobile manufacturers, petroleum interests and government actors as exerting pressure on the regulatory system. The film also discusses litigation involving California's rules and the participation of the George W. Bush administration in opposition to the state's approach. It questions whether the promotion of hydrogen fuel-cell vehicles offered an immediate practical solution or diverted policy attention from battery-electric technology that was already available. Battery technology is treated as an important counterpoint. The first EV1 used lead-acid batteries and had limited range, while later vehicles used improved nickel-metal-hydride technology and, in some cases, lithium-based systems. Interviewees argue that the available range could have served many daily commutes and that greater production might have lowered costs. The film also considers why electric vehicles could be commercially uncomfortable for established manufacturers and dealers: they require fewer routine service operations than internal-combustion vehicles and could reduce dependence on petroleum. The documentary combines interviews with drivers, engineers, public officials, environmental and energy analysts, industry representatives and public figures. Among those featured are Ed Begley Jr., Mel Gibson, Tom Hanks, Peter Horton, Alexandra Paul, Ralph Nader, James Woolsey, Wally Rippel, Chelsea Sexton, Alec Brooks, Alan Cocconi, Paul MacCready, Stan Ovshinsky and Joseph Romm. The film does not reduce the outcome to a single actor; instead, its title frames a broader inquiry into shared responsibility among manufacturers, regulators, consumers, energy companies and technological expectations. The film premiered at Sundance in 2006 and then circulated through festivals including San Francisco, Tribeca, Los Angeles, Berlin, Deauville and Wild and Scenic. Sony Pictures Classics released it theatrically on June 28, 2006. Its later companion documentary, Revenge of the Electric Car, revisited the automotive transition in 2011. The original film remains primarily a cultural and political work rather than an operating commercial brand, but its EV1 narrative became associated with public criticism of the early electric-car market's collapse and with renewed interest in battery-electric transportation.

• 2011

  Follow-up documentary released

  [1]Who Killed the Electric Car? — Wikipediaen.wikipedia.org

  Revenge of the Electric Car is released as a related follow-up.

• 2006

  Sundance premiere

  [1]Who Killed the Electric Car? — Wikipediaen.wikipedia.org

  The documentary premieres at the Sundance Film Festival.

• 2006

  Theatrical release

  [1]Who Killed the Electric Car? — Wikipediaen.wikipedia.org

  Sony Pictures Classics begins the film's theatrical release on June 28.

• 2003

  California scales back the ZEV mandate

  [1]Who Killed the Electric Car? — Wikipediaen.wikipedia.org

  The film presents the regulatory rollback as a pivotal event in the retreat from immediate battery-electric vehicle deployment.

• 1990

  California adopts a zero-emission vehicle mandate

  [1]Who Killed the Electric Car? — Wikipediaen.wikipedia.org

  The California Air Resources Board adopts rules requiring major automobile suppliers to offer zero-emission vehicles in order to maintain gasoline-vehicle sales in the state.

Investigative environmental documentary focused on automotive regulation, industrial strategy and the early commercialization of battery-electric vehicles.

• Documentary film · 2006

  Who Killed the Electric Car?

  A feature-length investigative documentary examining the development, limited leasing, regulatory rollback and destruction of General Motors' EV1 and related electric vehicles in the United States. It connects the EV1 episode to petroleum dependence, air pollution, climate change, public policy and the commercial incentives of automakers and dealers.

• 2004

  Destruction of leased EV1 vehicles

  General Motors recovered most leased EV1 vehicles after ending the program, and many were crushed despite efforts by former drivers and activists to preserve or purchase them. The film treats the episode as a central example of the destruction of an available electric-car technology.

  Source

• 2003

  Controversy over the retreat from California's electric-vehicle mandate

  The film investigates the weakening of California's zero-emission requirements amid pressure from automobile manufacturers, petroleum interests and government actors. It also raises questions about conflicts surrounding policy advocacy and the competing promotion of hydrogen vehicles.

  Source

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• 2006Festival and theatrical release campaign

  United States · International

  The film was promoted through a Sundance premiere, additional environmental and general film festivals, and a theatrical release by Sony Pictures Classics.

  Outcome. The documentary received broad festival exposure and entered theaters in the United States and international markets.

  Source

• 2006

  Documentary film releasedProduct launch

  Background

  The production assembled interviews, archival footage and reporting about the EV1, California regulation and competing vehicle technologies.

  Action taken

  Sony Pictures Classics released Who Killed the Electric Car? theatrically on June 28.

  Aftermath

  The film became a prominent documentary account of the early American electric-vehicle experiment and was followed by a related documentary in 2011.

  Source

• 2003

  California reduces the immediate electric-vehicle requirementStrategy

  Background

  California's zero-emission policy had encouraged manufacturers to produce and lease battery-electric vehicles, but the regulatory framework was later revised under industry and governmental pressure.

  Action taken

  The California Air Resources Board scaled back the battery-electric component of the mandate and permitted greater emphasis on other technologies, including future fuel-cell vehicles.

  Aftermath

  The film presents the rollback as a turning point that reduced the policy pressure supporting continued electric-vehicle commercialization.

  Source

• 2003

  General Motors ends the EV1 programStrategy

  Background

  General Motors had offered the EV1 primarily through leases, while the film documents disputes over consumer demand, range, price, marketing and the costs of continuing production.

  Action taken

  General Motors discontinued the EV1 program, reclaimed most leased cars and destroyed many of the returned vehicles.

  Aftermath

  Drivers and activists protested, while a small number of vehicles were preserved by museums and educational institutions.

  Source

1. 1Who Killed the Electric Car? — Wikipediaen.wikipedia.org
2. 2Official film websitewhokilledtheelectriccar.com