Clothing
The dress often reflects the status of her enslaver. The mammy is usually neat and clean and wears attire that is suitable for her domestic duties. Sometimes a mammy would consider herself to be "dressed up", but typically it was an addition of a bonnet and a silk velvet mantle, which tended to belong to her enslaver.[12]
Living conditions
When the mammy did not stay in the house of the enslavers or was not busy attending to the needs of their children, she would live separately. She lived with her husband and children in a cabin that was distinguished from the cabins of other enslaved individuals in size and structure. The cabin would be placed near the enslaver's house, but at a distance from the other cabins.[12]
Although her duties were far less tiring and strenuous, her hours were often long, leaving little time for her own leisure. Her life revolved around her duties, which did not allow her an opportunity to have an individual lifestyle other than serving. There was flexibility in her duties that distinguished her from an ordinary nurse or a wet nurse. In some of the wealthier households, the mammy had assistants who would help her take care of the household's children. These women were often much younger than the mammy herself.[12]
The mammy, unlike other slaves, was usually not for sale, and the children of the mammy were kept in the same family for as long as possible, retaining the same relationships that the mammy had with the enslaver.[12] There were often times when a mammy was forced to leave her own children behind to care for the owner's children. In many cases mammies chose to have their own children taken away because they needed to be able to provide mother's milk to nourish their enslaver's children. They feared that if they were feeding their own children there would be not be enough milk for the enslaver's children.[13]
Roles in plantation households
The fictional role of the mammy in plantation households grows out of the roles of enslaved African-Americans on the plantation. African-American slaves played vital roles in the plantation household. For the mammy, the majority of these duties generally are related to caring for the children of the enslaver's family, thus relieving the mistress of the house of all the drudgery work that is associated with childcare. When the children have grown up and were able to take care of themselves properly, the mammy's main role is to help the mistress with household tasks. As her years of service with the family increase, the mammy's sphere of influence increases as well. She is next to the mistress in authority and has the ability to give orders to everybody in the house.[12]
The mammy is often considered to be part of the slaveholding family as much as its blood members were considered. Although she is considered of a lower status, she is still included in the inner circle. Her role has often been referred to as a "unique type of foster motherhood". Aside from just tending to the needs of the children, the mammy is also responsible for teaching the proper etiquette to them, such as addressing the elders on the plantation as "aunt" or "uncle". She also taught what was the best speech on particular occasions and what was not. The mammy has the ability to discipline the children and is able to retain respect with those she worked with, even after the children grow to adulthood.[12]
Advertising
The mammy caricature has been used as advertisements for corporations, especially within the food industry. In 2020, the brand Aunt Jemima came under criticism for its branding after receiving public criticism about the company using a mammy caricature as its logo.[14] The character of Aunt Jemima was not a real person and was portrayed by several people, beginning with freed slave Nancy Green from 1893 to 1923, and followed by others including Anna Robinson (1923–1951), Edith Wilson (1948–1966), and Ethel Ernestine Harper (the 1950s). One of the founders of Aunt Jemima came up with the name and branding after hearing a minstrel song called "Old Aunt Jemima".[15] Subsequently, other companies who profited from using images of black caricatures received criticism as well. Uncle Ben's, Mrs. Butterworth's, and Cream of Wheat are some of the companies that were spotlighted. In 2021,
Cinema
In the early 20th century, the mammy character was common in many films. Al Jolson was known for his blackface depiction of the song "My Mammy" throughout his career with it featuring prominently in The Jazz Singer (1927). It also was the namesake for a 1930 film he starred in, Mammy. The Walt Disney Company also employed the stereotype in their works, including in 1929's The Haunted House wherein Mickey Mouse spoofs Jolson, as well as in printed Disney media. The 1931 short The Moose Hunt features Pluto speaking the repeated phrase of "Mammy!" in one of his few speaking roles.[19] Hattie McDaniel became the first African American to win an Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress with her performance as "Mammy" in Gone with the Wind in 1939.[20] In 1940, shortly after the win, the NAACP scrutinized McDaniel's role, and criticized Hollywood for the lack of diverse Black roles and characters outside of servitude.[21] McDaniel responded to backlash by saying, "Why should I complain about making $7,000 playing a maid? If I didn't, I'd be making $7 a week actually being one".[22]
Comics
- Rachel, Bobby's Make-Believe, 1919, Gasoline Alley, 1921.[26]
- Opal, Edgar Martin's Boots and Her Buddies
Dolls and ceramics
Mammy imagery can be found in the form of several objects including dolls, ceramics, cookie jars, salt and pepper shakers, and other household items. The mammy caricature was part of post Civil War propaganda that spread negative and false stereotypes about African Americans. These mammy ceramics and dolls had similar effects as the false representations created by minstrel shows. These figurines often had exaggerated features and tried to falsely portray African Americans as "docile, dumb and animated". Despite their racist meaning, these items have been passed down and seen as memorabilia. Although these mammy dolls and ceramics dehumanize African-American people, some of them are still valued and sold for hundreds of dollars.[27]
In Natchez, Mississippi, there is a roadside restaurant called Mammy's Cupboard that was founded in 1940. The building is shaped like a mammy caricature along with a head-wrap and long red skirt. Similar to Aunt Jemima, Mammy's Cupboard uses the imagery and the stereotype of women of African descent to promote a business. The restaurant's use of a mammy caricature to portray African-American servitude is reminiscent of how it was portrayed in the Old South.[28] The character Beloved Belindy was designed by Raggedy Ann creator Johnny Gruelle. This character was sold as a doll and featured in books.
Novels
Beloved Belindy, Johnny Gruelle‡R29R‡
The Help, Kathryn Stockett
The Help is a novel that follows the experiences shared by Black women working for white families during the Civil Rights Movement in Jackson, Mississippi. The lives of protagonists Aibileen and Minny are a primary focus in the novel, following their experiences working as maids and caregivers for white families. The characters Aibileen and Minny are depicted as being deeply nurturing, caring, and loyal women for families that they serve. Due to the nature of these depictions, scholars argue that these characters serve as examples of the mammy stereotype[30].
Beloved Belindy, Johnny Gruelle‡R29R‡
The Help, Kathryn Stockett
The Help is a novel that follows the experiences shared by Black women working for white families during the Civil Rights Movement in Jackson, Mississippi. The lives of protagonists Aibileen and Minny are a primary focus in the novel, following their experiences working as maids and caregivers for white families. The characters Aibileen and Minny are depicted as being deeply nurturing, caring, and loyal women for families that they serve. Due to the nature of these depictions, scholars argue that these characters serve as examples of the mammy stereotype[30].
Television
Televisions did not become common in US household until around the mid to late 1940s, making radio shows popular forms of entertainment for the American family. In 1939, Beulah Brown debuted as a character on the radio show Homeward Unincorporated. Beulah, as a character, was highly stereotypical and was the quintessential mammy figure auditorily. The character was originally played by white actor Marlin Hurt. The character was well taken to and added to several other radio shows. Over time, the creators and producers of these shows wanted to have an actual African-American woman as the voice of the character. Hattie McDaniel was given the role on the radio version in 1947, as she was famous for her multiple other award-winning performances portraying the mammy stereotype. The radio show was taken to television in the early 1950s and went on to run for three seasons. The first season of the show starred Ethel Waters, who later left the series due to not wanting to portray the mammy stereotype any longer. McDaniel took over the role for the second season, filming a total of six episodes before becoming ill. McDaniel has been noted to have chosen to play these mammy roles time and time again as they were the only accessible roles for a black actress during this time. In addition to her talent on the radio, in real life McDaniel was the epitome of what a mammy looked like, being big in size with a large mouth, and dark skin that contrasts with white teeth and big eyes. The role on television was also portrayed by Louise Beavers. Aside from the actress that portrayed her, Beulah, as a character, had all the characteristics of a mammy. She always made sure her "family", the family she worked for, was well taken care of. Helping them at any cost and putting their needs above her own can be seen in multiple episodes of the show. The NAACP, and other critics, did not like the image of African-American women the show represented, as it supported the mammy stereotype.[31]
Legacy
Nowadays, stereotypical or controlling images of African-American women reflect the economic, legal, and social changes that have occurred to people of African descent over the past 50–60 years. The images are also reflective of a society as a whole – a global economy, unprecedented media reach and transitional racial inequality – and are class specific. Working class Black women are depicted as the “Bad Black Mother”/”Welfare Queen” and the “Bitch” (materialistic and hyper sexual Black women within “hip-hop” culture), Middle class Black women are depicted as “Black Ladies” with allegedly un-restrainable sexual desire, and an educated Black woman is often depicted as an “Educated Black Bitch” who is portrayed as manipulative and controlling. Black women in positions of power are often seen as the “Modern-day Mammy”, which now refers to a well-educated and successful Black woman within the upper/upper middle class who “uphold[s] white-dominated structures, institutions, or bosses at the expense of [her] personal [life].”[35] This is a derivative of the original “Mammy” stereotype in which the Black woman was not only subservient but often happy to serve her white enslaver.
